Descriptive text

The aim of descriptive text:to describe the characteristics of particular person, thing, or place.

A descriptive text has two parts,the Description and the identification.

The social function : to describe a particular person,place or thing
The language use the daily languages.

Generic structure
Identification : identifies phenomenon to be described.
Description : describes parts qualities characterizations

Significant Lexicogrammatical features.
- Focus on specific participants
- Use of attributes and identifying processes
- Frequent , use of epithets and classifiers in nominal groups.
- Use of simple present tenses

Example of Descriptive Text:

Natural Bridge National Park
Natural bridge national park is a luscious tropical rainforest.
It is located 110 kilometers south of Brisbane and is reached by following the pacific Highway to nerang and then by traveling through the Numinbah Valley . This scenic roadway lies in the shadow of the Lamington National Park.

The phenomenon of the rock formed into a natural arch and the cave through which is a waterfall cascades is a short 1 kilometers walk below a dense rainforest canopy from the main picnic area. Swimming is permitted in the rock poles.
Night time visitors to the cave will discover the unique feature of the glow worms.

Picnic areas ofter toilets,barbecues,shelter sheds,water and fireplaces : however,overnight camping is not permitted.

Modals in the past form

Modals
Present Past
*Can -Could
*Will -Would
*Shall -Should
*May -might

Could to offer possibilities or suggestion. It us to express suggestions or possibilities.
Example : A : my pen’s lost
B : well,you could use mine if you want.

Example :
to indicate that the ability existed in the past but doesn’t exist now.
Mia : Grandpa, what could you do when you were younger? Grandpa : When I was younger, I could swim across the big river very well and faster.

to express polite requests

Example:
Could I borrow your pencil (please)?
Could you lend me your jacket now?
Could you please close the door?
Could you pass the salt?
Coulde you help me?
Could I use your book?

Would + Verb base
or an action that was repeated regularly in the past

Example:
When I was a child, I would visit my grandparents every weekend.
On Sundays, when I was a child, we would all get up early and go fishing.
-I would wacth a concert every year
-I pass the new year in bali every year.

• insert rather into the pattern and use this expression to express preferences :

example :
-I would rather drink coffee and tea.
-I would rather eat banana abd guava

Angel : Which country would you rather visit?
Maria : I would rather visit Italia than Somalia.

• To express polite requests

Example:
Andi : Would you mind cycling with me, Kala?
Kala : No, not at all. It would be nice.

Finite verb

A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it occurs. Finite verbs can form independent clauses, which can stand by their own as complete sentences.

Every grammatically correct sentence or clause must contain a finite verb; sentence fragments not containing finite verbs are described as phrases.

Some interjections can play the same role. Even in English, a sentence like Thanks for your help! has an interjection where it could have a subject and a finite verb form (compare I appreciate your help!).

In English, as in most related languages, only verbs in certain moods are finite. These include:

* the indicative mood (expressing a state of affairs); e.g., "The bulldozer demolished the restaurant," "The leaves were yellow and stiff."

* the imperative mood (giving a command).

* the subjunctive mood (expressing something that might or might not be the state of affairs, depending on some other part of the sentence); nearly extinct in English.

A verb is a word that expresses an occurrence, act, or mode of being. Finite verbs, sometimes called main verbs, are limited by time (see tense), person, and number.

The finite verbs are highlighted in the following sentences:

The bear caught a salmon in the stream.

Who ate the pie?

Stop!

A nonfinite verb form - such as a participle, infinitive, or gerund - is not limited by by time (see tense), person, and number.

Verb forms that are not finite include:

* the infinitive

* participles (e.g., "The broken window...", "The wheezing gentleman...")

* gerunds and gerundives

In linguistics, a non-finite verb (or a verbal) is a verb form that is not limited by a subject; and more generally, it is not fully inflected by categories that are marked inflectionally in language, such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender, and person. As a result, a non-finite verb cannot generally serve as the main verb in an independent clause; rather, it heads a non-finite clause.

By some accounts, a non-finite verb acts simultaneously as a verb and as another part of speech; it can take adverbs and certain kinds of verb arguments, producing a verbal phrase (i.e., non-finite clause), and this phrase then plays a different role — usually noun, adjective, or adverb — in a greater clause. This is the reason for the term verbal; non-finite verbs have traditionally been classified as verbal nouns, verbal adjectives, or verbal adverbs.

English has three kinds of verbals: participles, which function as adjectives; gerunds, which function as nouns; and infinitives, which have noun-like, adjective-like, and adverb-like functions. Each of these is also used in various common constructs; for example, the past participle is used in forming the perfect aspect (to have done).

Other kinds of verbals, such as supines and gerundives, exist in other languages.

Example:

The Crow and the Fox

One day a crow finds a tasty piece of cheese. She picks it up, flaps her wings, and flies to a high branch of a tree to eat it.

Compliment

Compliment is expression that used to give praising to other people.
Some people use compliment to better up somebody or to flatter in order to increase good will.

Expressing :
-What a nice dress?
-You look very nice.
- I really must express my admiration for you.
-Excellent .
-Nice work.
-You look great!
Time to expressing compliment :
On his/her general appearance.
If you notice something new about the person’s appearance.
When other people do their best.

Dialog :
  Ari  : Is it a nice motorcycle! Is it yours?
Indra :Thank you. Yeah, my father bought it for me.

Congratulation

Congratulation is expression that used to said congratulate to someone when get a success.

Expressing :
- let me congratulate you.
- Congratulations on your successful business.
- Congratulations on your success!
- Good
- That’s great!
- Pretty good.
- I’d like to be the frist to congratulate you.

Responding :
- Thank you.
- Thank’s , I needed that.
- It’s vvery kind of you to say that.
- Do you really think so?
- I’m glad you like it. Thank you,it’s nice of you to say to.

Dialog :
Chika : Congratulations ! you’re the winner. We are really proud to you.
Ali : Thank you.

Prepositions of Time: at, in, on

We use:
at for a PRECISE TIME
in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
on for DAYS and DATES

at
PRECISE TIME
at 3 o’clock
at 10.30am
at noon
at dinnertime
at bedtime
at sunrise
at sunset
at the moment

in
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS

in May
in summer
in the summer
in 1990
in the 1990s
in the next century
in the Ice Age
in the past/future

on
DAYS and DATES
on Sunday
on Tuesdays
on 6 March
on 25 Dec. 2010
on Christmas Day
on Independence Day
on my birthday
on New Year’s Eve

Look at these examples:

I have a meeting at 9am.
The shop closes at midnight.
Jane went home at lunchtime.
In England, it often snows in December.
Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
Do you work on Mondays?
Her birthday is on 20 November.
Where will you be on New Year’s Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:

Expression -Example
at night -The stars shine at night.
at the weekend -I don’t usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter -I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time -We finished the test at the same time.
at present -He’s not home at present. Try later.

Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:

In
in the morning
in the mornings
in the afternoon(s)
in the evening(s)

on
on Tuesday morning
on Saturday mornings
on Sunday afternoons
on Sunday evening

When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.

I went to London last June. (not in last June)
He’s coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
We’ll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

News Item

News item is factual text which informs the readers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy

or important.

Social function of news item is: to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.

Generic structure:

v Newsworthy Event(s): recounts the events in summary form

v Background Event(s): elaborate what happened, to WHOM, in WHAT circumstances.

v Sources: comments by participants in, witnesses to and authorities’ expert on the event.

Significant Grammar Features:

± Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline

± Generally using Simple Past Tense

± Use of Material Processes to retell the event

± Using Action Verbs, e.g.: were, run, go, kill, etc.

± Using Saying Verbs, e.g.: say, tell

± Focus on Circumstances

± Use of projecting Verbal Processes in Sources stages

There are some rules that can help to make newspaper headlines more comprehensible.

1. The passive voice is used without the appropriate form of “be”.

Example: Town ‘Contaminated’

Complete Sentence: Town is contaminated.

2. It is unusual to find complex forms, generally the simple present form is used

Example: Fire Destroys over 2,511 acres of Forest in 2003-2004

Complete Sentence: Fire has destroyed over 2,511 acres of forest in 2003-2004.

3. The present progressive tense is used, usually to describe something that is changing or developing, but the auxiliary verb is usually left out.

Example: World Heading for Energy Crisis

Complete Sentence: The world is heading for an energy crisis.

4. To refer to the future, headlines often use the infinitive.

Example: Queen to Visit Samoa.

Complete Sentence: The Queen is going to visit Samoa.

5. Headlines are not always complete sentences.

Example: More earthquakes in Japan.

Complete Sentence: More earthquakes happened in Japan.

Gratitude

Gratitude is expression that used tosay thank you to other people.

Kinds of gratitude expression are :
- thank you very much.
- Thanks.
- I am grateful to….
- I want to thank …
- I want to express my gratitude to
- I keep forgetting to thank you for….


Respond of expressing :
- you arewlcome
- Don’t mention it !
- It was nothing at all
- No problem
- I am glad I could help.

Surprise or disbelief

Surprise or disbeliefs is :
-a feeling that we feel when we heard an amazing news which surprised and amazed us
-an expression that we show/say when we know/hear/see something that rather difficult to believe.
-Used to express something that we can’t or impossible.

To express surprise or disbeliefs :
-what a surprise !
-(well), that’s very surprising!
-Really?
-What??
-Oh,no…
-Are you serious?you must br jokin !
-You’re kidding !
-I must say…. Suprieses me
-I find that hard to belive

Surprising amazement of something :
-fantastic
-How marvelous/beautiful!
-it’s very interesting !
- it’s great!
-it’s terrifict!
-wow,that’s amazing!
-wonderful!
-what a nice…
-what a lovely flower!
-hey,that’s really terrific

Noun Phrase

A noun phrase is either a single noun or pronoun or any group of words containing a noun or a pronoun that function together as a noun or pronoun, as the subject or object of a verb.

For example, ‘they’, ‘books’, and ‘the books’ are noun phrases, but ‘book’ is just a noun, as you can see in these sentences (in which the noun phrases are all in bold)

Example 1:

Shaggy: Do you like APPLES?

Bean : Yes, I like THEM .

Shaggy: Do you like APPLES over there?

Bean : Yes, they are nice.

Shaggy: Do you like the APPLE I brought yesterday?

Bean : Yes, I like it. (Note: ‘It’ refers to ‘the APPLE’, not ‘APPLE’)

Example 2:

Asrie was late.

(‘Asrie’ is the noun phrase functioning as the subject of the verb.)

Some noun phrases are short: The students

Some are long : The very tall education consultant

Structures of noun phrases:

▪ A beautiful old painting on the wall

The structure of this noun phrase contains three sections:

Pre-modifier	Head noun	Post-modifier
A beautiful old	painting	on the wall
A beautiful old	painting	-
-	painting	on the wall

This is the table of the adjectives that are combined with the nouns:

Determiner	Opinion adjectives		Descriptive adjectives						Nouns
	General	specific	size	shape	age	colour	nationality	material
A	Lovely	comfortable	big	-	-	-	-	Wooden	chair
The	Cheap	-	-	-	new	black	German	-	car
			Large	round	-	-	-	metal	table

When you use a noun in front of another noun, you never put adjectives between them. You put adjectives in front of the first noun.

Example: We just spoke with a young American boy.

Noun phrase can be in form of gerund (V_base+ing) or gerund and other nouns compounding.

Example: passing the exam watching TV

preparing the equipment sliding down a rope

going to school diving board

Passive Voice

Passive voice
a passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action in the subject of a sentence . that's whoever or whatever is performing the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence . take a look at this passive repharasing of a familiar joke.

example passive voice :
tense : simple present
active : we take a cake
passive : a cake is taken by us

tense : simple past
active : we took a cake
passive : a cake was taken by us

tense : simple future
active : we will take a cake
passive : a cake will be taken by us

tense : present perfect
active : we has taken a cake
passive : a cake has been taken by us

when rewriting active sentence in the passive voice , note the following
* the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
* the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
* the object of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

AGENT
in passive voice clause , we usually use a phrase beginning with by if we want to mention the agent - the person or thing that does the action , or that causes what happens . example

My sister makes sandwich every morning
* subject + Verb 1 + s/es + O + C

Sandwich is made by my sister every morning
* subject + tobe + V3 + agent + C

Future Tense

This tense is used to express an action / condition / situation that will occurs in the future

example :

• your father will come tommorow
• evi will go to Palangka Raya with her family

the formula of future is :
without verb
positif :
S + will / shall + be + complement
we shall be on time

negatif :
S + Will / shall + not + be + complement
we shall not be on time

introgativ :
will / shall + S + be + Complement
shall we be on time ?

for with verb
Positife :
S + Will / shall + V1 + object / complement
they will kill ant

negatife :
S + will / shall + not + V1 + object/complement
they will not kill ant

introgative :
will / shall + s + V1 + object / complement
will they kill ant ?

will : all subject
shall : we and i

Asking if someone remember or not

To ask someone if he remember about something or not.

Formal expressions:
* I wonder if you remember.....
* You remember...., don’t you?
* You haven’t forgotten...., have you?
* Don’t you remember.....?
* Do you happen to remember it now?

Ways to respond:
- Let me think, yes, I remember.
- I remember especially the scenery.
- I’ll never forget that
- I’ll always remember.
- I can remember it clearly.

Informal expressions:
-Remember the old house we used to live in?
- Remember that?
- I’m sorry I don’t remember

Ways to respond:
*Hold on. Yes, got it!
*I know.....
* It’s coming back to me now.

Respond if you forget:
* Sorry, I’ve completely forgotten.
* I’m affraid I forget.
*I really can’t remember.
* I’m afraid I have no memory of him
* Errr, let me think. No, it’s gone.
* Sorry, it slipped off my mind.

Offering

The expression of “ Would you like....”is normally used for offering something to someone.

Ways to say it :

* Would you like a cup of coffee, Mr. Ardi?
* Should I get you a bottle of water?
* Could I offer you a glass of milk, Mr. Rio?
* Would you care some salad?

Ofering to friends:
* Want some?
* Have some?
* Chocolate?
* Grab some for yourself

Less formal expressions:

* Would you like to have a pancake?
* Why don't you have some lemonade?
* What can I get for you?
* What will you have?

Declining an offering :

* No, thanks.
* No, really won't, thanks
* Not for me, thanks.

Accepting an offering :

* Thank you.
* Yes, please
* I'd like it very much
* That would be very nice

Invitation

Definitation
something or sentences which we can use to invite someone or group to a party or a program.

* if we want invite someone, we can use :
1.would you like...?
2.can you come to ...
3.could you go to my home?
4.shall we...?
5.I'd like to invite you..
6.how about..
7.i would you like...

* accept an invitation
- o.k. !
-that's a good idea
-thank's for your invitation
-that would be very nice. thank you !
-All right
-Thank you, I'll come...
-Of course ! I'll come ...
-Yes, I'll join to..

* to refuse / dealine an invitation
- that's nice unfortunately
- Sorry,that wouldn't be possible,thank's
- Sorry,because i have program
- Sorry,it's good,but i can't present it
- I'm awfully,sorry
- I would love,but..
- It's good,but..
- Sorry I'm busy....

Direct and Indirect speech

A. Direct speech

Direct speech refers to reproducing another person’s exact word oe saying exactly what someone has said(sometimes called quoted speech) here what a peson says appears within quotation marks(“….”) and should be word for word.

For example :

She said,”today’s lesson is on presentations.” Or

“Today’s lesson is on presentations,” she said.

B.Indirect speech

Indirect speech (sometimes called reported speech),doesn’t use quotation marks to enclpse what the person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word.

For example :” I’m going to the cinema”,he said – he said he was going to the cinema.

Tense Change

When reporting speech the tense usually changes. Because when we use reported speech,we are usually talking about a time in the past. Note : the reporting verbs that are usually used to report imperative sentence are : Tell , other command , ask,warn remind

Simple present - Past tenses

Vita said” I eat fried rice” vita said that she ate fried rice

Simple past - Past perfect

Mother said” I went to market yesterday” - mother said (that) she had gone to market the day before.

Simple future - Past future

Dave said” I will buy an i-pod nexk week’ - Dave said (that) he would buy an i-pod the week after.

Present continuous - Past continuous

Gama said” I’m playing football” - Gama said he was playing football

Past continuous - Past perfect continuous

She said” I was teaching earlier” - she said she had been teaching earlier

-when report what someone said,don’t usually repeat their exact weords,use our words, we can use reporting words such as tell say as follow by”that clause”

example : my mother said that she got up at 4 o’clock.

In time expression and pronouns

Direct speech-----

-now

-today/tonight

-Yesterday

-tomorrow

-last week

-next week

-ago

-this/these

-here

-pronouns

Indirect speech-----

-then

-that day/that night

-the day before/the previous day

-the next/following day

-the previous week

-the following week/the week after

-before

-that/those

-there

-they changes according to the context

Modal verb froms also sometimes change :

Direct speech-----

Will

Can

Must

Shall

May

Indirect speech-----

would

could

had

should

might

Note – there is no change to;could,would,should,might and ought too.

Direct speech

“I might go to the cinema”, he said

Indirect speech

He said he might go to cinema.